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Coral and Coral Reefs (Click here to download the paper in PDF form. (4.2MB) This paper, still the classic introduction to the field, was written around 1970, but its publication was delayed by nearly 10 years because the publishers did not think coral reefs were of sufficient interest to the public. It was written at a time when large scale coral bleaching, coral diseases, and coral reef eutrophication were unknown, or confined to tiny areas with extreme local stresses. All of that changed in the decades after this paper was published, as coral reefs began dying on a large scale and the reefs described in this paper virtually vanished. Nevertheless this paper makes clear that even then the most experienced coral reef researchers were aware that coral reefs were exceptionally vulnerable systems and could be easily destroyed by human activities. We knew that they were highly sensitive, but did not yet realize just precisely how fragile they were. It was only in the following decade that we were able to quantitatively establish the precise tolerance limits of coral reefs to global warming and nutrient pollution and found they were the lowest of any ecosystem. The temperature limits have now been established as 1 degree C above normal for the duration of the warmest month to cause large scale bleaching, and a bit above that to cause serious mortality (see other papers on this web site). The nutrient limits above which massive overfertilization of the algae causes them to overgrow and kill the reef has been found to be 1.0 micromole per liter (0.014 ppm) of available nitrogen and 0.1 micromole per liter (0.003 ppm) of available phosophorus (see other papers on this web site). Along with the massive global outbreaks of new coral diseases that started after this paper was written (see papers posted on this web site), these new limits and the older scientific studies documented in this paper clearly refute the popular fad of "resilient reefs", which is now being touted by governments, international funding agencies, and large environmental organizations. This hypothesis claims that coral reefs will bounce back from any human caused stress all by themselves, no matter what we do, which cannot be supported by any long term observations. It serves as a smokescreen designed to prevent action to reduce global, regional, and local stresses to reefs, and block efforts to restore damaged habitats. Those touting "resilience" claim that we "should do nothing at all and the reefs will recover all by themselves", are getting huge sums of funding from the US and Australian Governments and the World Bank. Their actions are directly responsible for speeding the rate of reef destruction and preventing action when it could have made a difference. A few corrections to the paper are needed. The subtitle should say that reefs are the most species rich ecosystem in the oceans, not on earth. This unfortunate error was made by the editors, we were always fully aware of the unique diversity of rain forest insects. The drawings and maps were done by the magazine staff and are very poor compared to the original drawings we submitted, which we will also post in due course. With these caveats and updates, this paper serves as an ideal introduction to corals and coral reefs when supplemented by the later papers on coral reef bleaching, diseases, eutrophication, and restoration posted on this web site. Thomas J. Goreau, PhD
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