Negril: Environmental Threats and Recommended Actions

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Negril: Environmental Threats and Recommended Actions

Thomas J. Goreau, Ph.D.

President, Global Coral Reef Alliance,

Scientific Advisor, Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society

Protecting Jamaica's Coral Reefs: Water Quality Issues, 1992

NOTE: This paper discusses the detailed ecology and threats to the reefs of the Negril tourist area in western Jamaica during 1992. Since this paper was written few of the specific recommendations for reef protection have been followed, and all the sites described have deteriorated significantly.

Profile: Thomas J. Goreau, Ph.D.

Dr. Goreau was raised in Jamaica, and began swimming as soon as he could walk, accompanying his father, Thomas F. Goreau, on his pioneering diving research on coral reefs. He received degrees in Planetary Physics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in Planetary Astronomy from California Institute of Technology, and in Biogeochemistry from Harvard. Tom is a former professor and researcher in the United States, Jamaica, and Brazil, and Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Center for Science and Technology for Development. He is now president of the Global Coral Reef Alliance, a non profit research and education organization focused on coral reef protection, and Scientific Advisor to the Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society and the Port Antonio Marine Park committee.

SUMMARY

Major environmental threats to Negril reefs during 1992 are evaluated and potential short-term and long-term impacts of current and proposed development are assessed. Hydrological changes in the aquifers have reduced drinking water supplies and are polluting ground and coastal waters. Specific steps recommended to protect and enhance the area's reefs include: 1 ) long-term environmental monitoring, 2) water quality monitoring, 3) measuring nutrient inputs from rivers and groundwater to coastal waters, 4) more complete sewage collection to include the entire population of the area, 5) tertiary polishing of sewage oxidation pond effluents, routing of sewage lines away from the cliff caves and faults, 7) whole watershed planning, 8) mariculture development, 9) demarcation of zoned use and protected areas, and 10) establishment of a Negril Marine Park whose boundaries include the best reefs of the region.

INTRODUCTION

The natural beauty of the Negril area, a critical component of the success of Jamaica's third largest tourism centre, has undergone visible deterioration above and below the waterline, even while plans are underway to greatly increase construction and population density. When I first visited Negril from Kingston in 1960 just after the first road to the beach was built, there were no buildings the entire length of the beach, which was covered in a dense grove of Jamaica Tall coconut palms. The waters were crystal clear, and there were no algae growing on the white sands. During the whole day the only people I met were two young men from Orange Bay who passed by with an empty wheelbarrow in the morning, returning with it full of jelly coconuts and fish. Now that it is Jamaica's fastest growing resort growing resort area, all the tall coconut trees are gone, the beaches are crowded with people and buildings, the waters are often turbid, and masses of algae proliferate over sand, seagrass, and reef.

During 1992 environmental stresses to Negril reefs included solid waste pollution, hydrocarbon pollution, excess nutrients from sewage, public health problems, physical damage from anchors, over collection of corals and shells, algal overgrowth of corals, hydrological discharges from land, and from climatic extremes. This paper focuses on the area to be affected by the National Water Commission's (NWC) Negril area sewage collection and treatment system, between Negril Lighthouse and Rutland Point, but also includes outlying parts of the Negril economic region whose shores are adjacent to the proposed Negril Marine Park. The accompanying paper (Goreau, this volume) contrasts reef conditions and development status of Negril reefs with other reef sites around Western Jamaica.

HISTORY OF PARK PROPOSALS IN NEGRIL

The Long Bay beach was accessible only by boat until construction of the road and bridges connecting Negril to Orange Bay, following a development plan initiated by Premier Norman W. Manley in 1959. Marine habitats from Negril Lighthouse to Green Island were first studied in 1960, before the start of development. An official report to the Negril Green Island Area Land Authority (NGIALA) and Beach Control Authority (whose mandate was later incorporated into the Natural Resources Conservation Authority, NRCA) recommended marine areas to be designated a National Marine Park to ensure preservation of the area's ecological tourism potential (Goreau, 1960). Some key provisions included zoning Long Bay and Bloody Bay into areas for diving, snorkeling, various boat water sports, etc., protection of ecologically sensitive terrestrial shore areas including the caves of the West End, and special protection for the reefs in Orange Bay and Samuel's Bay due to their exceptionally high diversity and vigorous growth (summarized in Goreau, 1992a). Thirty three years later the relevant planning authorities have not yet acted on the marine environmental protection recommendations made at the very outset of development in Negril. Despite lack of progress towards marine protected areas, there was limited progress towards protecting terrestrial ecosystems during the 1980s. For proposed peat mining of the Negril Morass, the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica (PCJ) acquired virtually the entire Morass, and commissioned studies of morass waters (Enell, 1984), peat (Digerfeldt & Enell, 1984), sediments (Hendry, 1982), and plant communities, (Coke, 1982). Part of south of the Morass containing the largest stand of endemic Jamaican swamp palm was set aside to become a nature preserve, and boardwalks and buildings for a nature display centre were erected by PCJ. Despite it's impressive infrastructure, the area was never used for this purpose. Title to the Morass was transferred from PCJ to the Urban Development Corporation (UDC), except for areas including the proposed palm reserve, which were divested to private ownership. The potential of the divested area as a nature park remains untapped, and cattle which have been let loose to graze have seriously degraded much of the natural vegetation and allowed weeds to proliferate. Proposals for public parks in the Standing Woods area, the last remaining forest on Long Bay Beach, among other sites, have been made by the Negril Chamber of Commerce (NCC), but funding for these proposals has not yet materialized (S. Grizzle, personal communication).

New proposals made for a Negril Marine Park in 1988 presented maps for water use zoning in Long Bay, preservation of Bloody Bay, a strictly protected area occupying Samuel's Bay and Orange Bay, and proposed extending the Park boundary past Negril Lighthouse to the end of the shore road near Hog Heaven Hotel because of increasing development along the south shore (Coffin, 1988). This proposal, like the first, was not acted upon by the relevant planning authorities. Efforts by water sports, boating, and diving operators to install moorings to protect reefs from anchor damage resulted because of concerns that reef deterioration was visible in areas that were heavily used. Following a meeting of Mrs. Coffin with concerned Negril residents, led by Dr. Craig Travis and others, a grass-roots non-profit reef protection organization, The Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society (NCRPS), came into being, and the Negril Fishermen's Cooperative (NFC) was established, led by Cyril Connell.

NCRPS, led by Katy Thacker, has built strong community support for initiatives to protect Negril coral reefs through public education, workshops on local environmental problems, building support for the establishment of a Marine Park, and many other activities. NCRPS, in cooperation with Reef Relief (a non-profit Key West, Florida, reef protection and education organization) set out 35 moorings in Long Bay which have greatly reduced anchor damage to the reefs. NCRPS, in cooperation with the Global Coral Reef Alliance, (a non-profit coral reef research and protection organization which proposed reef protection language for the United Nations Earth Summit Negotiations) has begun monitoring changes in the ecology of Negril reefs, and made recommendations for documenting and alleviating stress to them, including establishment of a Park.

The Negril Fishermen's Cooperative has obtained title to land to build a fishermen's supply store, storage area, and office, and plans to develop programs for development of fishing in deeper waters to allow overfished inshore areas to recover, and to develop mariculture alternatives. A system of protected areas in fish nursery grounds is also needed to maintain severely depleted fish stocks, and fisheries restrictions in certain areas could be implemented as part of a park (C. Travis, NFC proposal; K, Aiken, 1992; J. Bruno, personal communication).

A recent review of a proposed nation-wide park system by the Jamaica Conservation and Development Trust (JCDT, 1992) included a broader proposal for a Negril natural areas park. A single park including both marine and terrestrial ecosystems was proposed, whose boundaries enclosing the entire watershed. This was unique to Negril, as all other proposed marine protected areas did not include upstream watersheds, and would be unable to protect reefs from stresses originating in those areas. JCDT's PARC Programme was initiated with inauguration of the Montego Bay Marine Park and the Blue Mountain - John Crow Park. Establishment of a proposed Negril Park remains on the agenda for future years, when funding can be found (F. McDonald, D. Smith, & D. Lee, personal communications).

CURRENT THREATS TO NEGRIL REEF HEALTH

The major threats to Negril reefs during 1992 included garbage, oil, sewage, water-borne infections, anchor damage, coral and shell collecting, algae overgrowth, coral bleaching, and hydrological changes. Each is discussed in detail below.

1 ) SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

Solid waste disposal problems are on a moderate scale in Negril, and largely derived from local sources (Jones, this volume). Negril is not a commercial port, and few cruise ships or yachts visit. During 1992 floating and stranded trash, mainly juice containers and plastic bags, were often seen in Long Bay. The Beach itself is remarkably clean due to voluntary efforts by beach establishments and the NCC cleanup program initiated and supported by Stanley Gottlieb. Shore litter was far worse on Booby Cay and the West End, which are not covered by the NCC programme. The worst area was near the mouth of the South Negril River. In shallow waters of southern Bloody Bay paper plates, cups, cans, and bottles were seen. At Drumville Cove on the West End large plastic sacks full of lobster shells were systematically dumped near shore. These originated from a local restaurant, indicated by forks and other utensils thrown out in the sacks (see picture. Editor's note: not available for this draft). That they resulted from regular dumping was clear from the range of fresh to

thoroughly decayed shells, widely dispersed across the adjacent sea bed, seen at visits a year apart.

The garbage dump at Orange Bay sits in very low Iying mangroves adjacent to some of the richest seagrass beds and coral reefs in the region, an important fish nursery, and a turtle egg-laying beach. If the mangroves were cut, or if toxic pollutants (such as oil residues and chemicals) are released into the bay by groundwater leaching or from burning of hazardous wastes in the dump (where trash fires are common), one of the most ecologically critical zones in the region could be seriously damaged. The narrow mangrove fringe is environmentally sensitive because groundwater flows under it from the Morass and the garbage dump into Orange Bay. It is subject to flooding during hurricanes and heavy rains, and much solid garbage could be washed onto the reef if it is cleared. The Hanover Parish Council has announced the closure of the dump, but there is a need to protect the area from existing pollution which will remain for years.

2) LIQUID WASTES:

A) PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS

Rupture of an underground storage tank at the only gas station in Negril released a large amount of refined petroleum into a tidal creek of the South Negril River in late 1991. A surface oil slick flowed down river, and tarry petroleum residues accumulated on bottom sediments in the Bay near the River mouth (K. Thacker, personal communication). A surface boom with a plastic apron was placed across the mouth of the creek to contain the petroleum and prevent it being washed into the river. Observations in September 1992 showed it had not worked as intended. Oil slicks were seen from the edge of the boom down the creek, and downstream along the southern bank of the South Negril River (see picture Editor's note: Not available for this draft.). The boom had been placed in the middle of tidally-flushed mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) and salt fern (Acrostichum aureum). Water appears to flow under and around the barrier on a regular tidal cycle. These residues will be transported by tides, river flow, and waves until they break down, are buried in river and nearshore sediments, a working barrier is constructed, or the remaining oil sludge is removed.

After the leak the gas station removed the corroded storage tank and constructed a new underground storage tank according to much more stringent standards. The excavation pit was completely lined with heavy rubber mats glued together along the seams. If tanks were to leak or be accidentally discharged, leakage ought to be contained above the rubber mat where it could easily be removed without discharge to the environment.

Negril remains subject to hydrocarbon discharges from the high and increasing density of inshore motor boat traffic. Each motor boat or jet ski which leaves a wake behind on the surface also leaves behind a small oil slick and a turbid plume of resuspended fine-grained bottom sediments. This turbidity probably contributes significantly to the decline in water clarity noted by divers (K. Thacker, personal communication). Turbidity could increase further if a marina were built or boat traffic increases. High motor boat traffic areas like Long Bay should be monitored for hydrocarbon levels to ensure that chronic hydrocarbon stress does not affect the reefs. Surveys of beach tar and hydrocarbon contents of marine organisms should be done to determine if there have been changes in oil pollution levels (M. Jones, this volume).

B) EXCESS NUTRIENTS FROM SEWAGE

Analyses of nutrient levels in Negril Bay made in 1990 were interpreted by Greenaway (1991) to indicate most sites were not polluted and that nutrient levels were low except near major sewage discharge areas, especially between the South Negril River Mouth and the Bay by Sunshine Plaza, where some high fecal coliform bacteria and nutrient levels have been found (Rose, this volume). During 1991, coral overgrowth by exceptionally high levels of benthic algae took place in Long Bay and Bloody Bay. The preponderance of species which are regarded indicators of high nutrient stress indicated that high nutrient levels were present throughout the Negril area (Goreau, 1992a). Samples of algae were collected throughout Long Bay near newly installed mooring buoys and along a transect from Negril Lighthouse to the mouth of the South Negril River (see Map 1). These were analyzed for carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus contents. The results show that Long Bay algae are strongly enriched in phosphorus (B. Lapointe, this volume). Algae nutrient contents increase from the Lighthouse to the South Negril River, and are very high throughout Long Bay. (See Figures 1 & 2) This suggests that nutrients are derived in major part from the beach.

Although the linkages between elevated nutrient concentrations and death of corals from excessive algal growth are long known, thorough documentation has only recently been available. Papers presented at the International Coral Reef Symposium in Guam in 1992 by B. LaPointe (based on work in Florida, Jamaica, Bahamas, Bermuda, Belize, and elsewhere in the Caribbean) and by P. Bell (based on work along the Australian Great Barrier Reef) suggested identical guidelines for critical levels which nutrients should not exceed for coral reef ecosystems to be safe from algal overgrowth. These levels were determined to be around 1.0 micromoles per litre of nitrogen as both nitrate and ammonium, and 0.1 micromoles per litre of phosphorus in soluble inorganic and organic forms (LaPointe, this volume). By these newly established criteria, every single site analyzed by Greenaway in 1990 was in excess of acceptable standards for both nitrogen and phosphorus, including all sites which had been characterized as pollution-free.

Definitive support for the role of high nutrient levels in stimulating rapid overgrowth of corals by algae is provided by Barry Wade (this volume). Wade measured nutrient concentrations throughout Long Bay during 1991, at the same time that massive algal overgrowth of the reef took place. Both nitrogen and phosphorus were extremely high, indeed at levels characteristic of very severe pollution, especially phosphorus. His measurements suggest strongly that nutrients are derived from along the entire coastline and especially the beach. Wade's measurements showed a sharp rise in nutrient levels, but they ended in late 1991. No known nutrient monitoring was conducted in Negril during 1992. New measurements by Greenaway have been scheduled in 1993 in a contract for the NCC. Long term data is needed to assess current rates of change in nutrients, eutrophication threats to Negril waters, and design strategies to abate nutrient releases from land. Existing data are too few and far between, and a much more systematic survey is needed.

C) PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS

Dr. Craig Travis (personal communication) has observed that Negril is undergoing rapidly rising rates of ear infection. Cases were reported from beaches near the river and certain sites along the West End. Hundred's of "Swimmer's Ear" antibiotic remedies are sold in Negril pharmacies each year. Dr. Travis finds around 95% of cases are caused by bacteria, primarily a Pseudomonas species, and around 5% by fungi (with victims being largely British). Many additional complaints are handled by hotel nurses, not reported, left untreated, or attributed to swimming pools. Sport dive shops report increasing canceled dives due to ear infection, and often use vinegar and alcohol ear applications as a home remedy to prevent infections. Swimmer's itch, apparently caused by mites, is common after heavy rains wash that vegetation to the sea. It seems there is potential public health concern regarding water transmitted infections in the Negril area which requires much more detailed case reporting. Baptisms in polluted waters in front of Sunshine Plaza needlessly expose babies to water borne diseases, and should be conducted where the water is clean. High levels of skin and ear infection have long been known in the Kingston, Ocho Rios, St. Anns Bay, Montego Bay, and Discovery Bay areas, where popular bathing beaches have had to be closed by public health officials due to high coliform bacteria counts.

Failure to promptly identify and reduce potential public health threats from transmissible pathogens in Jamaican recreational waters could threaten the entire tourist industry if it is not dealt with promptly. Acapulco in Mexico saw tourist revenues fall sharply after beach waters became known to be seriously polluted by raw sewage. In the 1990s there will be an increased focus on environmental health, and resort areas are likely to be ranked by how unpolluted they are. The best strategy to compete in an increasingly crowded market will be to solve the problem before it gets out of hand and causes failing of an international resort dirty water survey. Although this problem has steadily festered for decades, fear of high costs public health investment and of lost revenues if the problem is publicly acknowledged have promoted a head-in-the-sand attitude to water pollution. A full-time public health officer is needed to ensure adequate public health inspection.

3) PHYSICAL THREATS:

A) ANCHOR DAMAGE

Reef Relief and NCRPS installed 35 mooring buoys at major dive and snorkel sites in Long Bay during late 1991. Boats began to tie up to new moorings as soon as they were installed, therefore greatly reducing anchor damage to Negril reefs. Mooring use remains heavy, but a few have been damaged and need to be replaced and all need regular cleaning and maintenance (C. Quirolo, this volume). More moorings are needed at other dive sites. In heavy use areas, up to three boats may tie on at once, and additional boats must use anchors. Under these overcrowded conditions serious damage to corals from dragging anchors has been seen during rough weather (K. Thacker, personal communication).

B) CORAL COLLECTING

During 1992 sale of corals at roadside stands along the North Coast and of endangered marine species in curio stores at the Sangster Airport was apparently brought nearly to an end. NRCA deserves strong praise for enforcing the provisions of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) which Jamaica recently ratified. Large scale destruction of living coral for sale to tourists was especially troubling because it targeted the two shallow water species, Acropora palmata and Acropora cervicornis, which were the most effective at protecting the shore from hurricane waves, and which had been largely wiped out around Jamaica by hurricanes during the 1980s.

C) SHELL COLLECTING

By late 1992 most former coral vendors had switched to selling conch (Strombus gigas) and other shells. The magnitude of conch seen for sale in Negril and Montego Bay is certain to place further stress on a species which is already severely depleted almost everywhere in Jamaica. Most Jamaican conch populations have been overfished in seagrass beds reachable by surface divers, around 30-40 feet. In some places individual fishermen capable of deep diving have eliminated conch even deeper, and aqualung use has allowed conch hunters to collect on deep sand plains which free divers formerly could not reach. Divers finding large numbers of conch used to smash the apex of the shell and take only the muscle to avoid carrying the shell's weight. The current high value of the shell is likely to result in scavenging of dead shells. Conch gathering to reproduce at certain times of the year form long lines, but avoid places where they are killed in large numbers afterwards. Conch hunting should be strictly controlled, like lobster, to save an endangered and valuable species, although conch might take a long time to recover. Seagrass beds in the Orange Bay area are potential sites for conch mariculture if they can be restocked and sustainably harvested. The abundance of conch shells in Negril's fossil reefs demonstrate that before humans arrived and began hunting them, conch reached extremely high abundances of up to several per square metre, or hundreds of times greater than is now seen.

Large, old, and very high quality marine shells, starfish, and other marine organisms are sold by vendors in the Negril area. These are mainly collected in Orange Bay, an area with very high conservation priority as well as high potential for mariculture of high-value marine organisms in back reef seagrass beds. Existing populations of these organisms need to be protected so that they can restock their numbers and be harvested sustainably. Continuation of current trends will drive the most desirable species extinct and allow the proliferation of less desirable species in their place.

4) ALGAL OVERGROWTH OF REEFS

Very high abundances of bottom-dwelling algae and death of corals due to overgrowth by algae continued to be a problem in the Negril area during 1992. However, it appeared that the biomass and coverage of smothering seaweeds in shallow water were less than in 1991. In reefs from 30 feet to 70 feet depth the abundance of Sargassum hystrix remained high. But it was largely under 10 cm tall, markedly less than in 1991, when streamers reached up to a metre long. Nevertheless, as its abundance still remains high, rapid growth like that of 1991 might again be triggered by appropriate environmental conditions. Large masses of Chaetomorpha linum, which smothered shallow reefs in Long Bay in 1991, were not observed there in 1992, although they remained in Bloody Bay.

Coral overgrowth by algae in 1991 was most severe by a species forming low-growing mats which had been much less abundant the previous year, Cladophoropsis macromeres. This species is an indicator of high nutrients, and has been a serious problem in Bermuda (B. LaPointe, personal communication). In November 1992 Cladophoropsis was dominant in much of northern Long Bay, and in depths from 30 to 60 feet formed dense mats that entirely covered up to 70% of the bottom in video transects taken by B. Lapointe. Samples of these algae have been preserved for nutrient analysis once funding can be identified. If these specimens are found to be elevated in phosphorus or nitrogen, it would demonstrate that high nutrients were a problem in 1992. Because the distribution of these large patches suggests they are receiving nutrients from underlying sediment and limestone, this may indicate nutrients from sewage disposed into sinkholes on land leaking into the coastal zone through submarine formations. This is consistent with observations that nutrient levels near the bottom of Long Bay are higher than at the surface (Wade, this volume). The supply of nutrients in these proliferating algae mats needs to be investigated more closely, and closely watched.

The decrease in Sargassum density between 1991 and 1992 could be due to differences in weather. 1991 was extremely hot and calm, conditions which allow nutrients to build up to very high levels in sheltered Bays. In contrast, 1992 was much cooler, windier, and rougher, with many more northers than recent years. These conditions are likely to have caused increased water mixing in the Bay in 1992, leading to lower nutrient concentrations even if inputs were unchanged. Although algal overgrowth of corals was somewhat reduced from the previous year, it continues to pose a serious threat to the reef. Densities are still high and rapid proliferation could result during sustained hot and calm conditions. 1992 was unusual because temporary global cooling was caused by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, which released large amounts of sulphur dioxide to the stratosphere, causing high altitude haze to form that reflected sunlight back to space. Caribbean temperatures were close to long term averages throughout 1992, in marked contrast to hot conditions of the past decade. There were less northers and frontal systems which fishermen strongly rely on to bring in many offshore fish species (resulting in the Puerto Rican saying "Mar revuelto, ganancia de pescadores", or "stormy seas, good catch for fishermen"). Negril fishermen have noted that the weather has become notably calmer in recent years (Arthur, this volume), affecting their catches of many species (fishermen in the Marshall Islands have noted the same in the West Pacific). As the cooling effect of the volcano is nearly over, high temperatures and calmer conditions could return in 1993 or 1994. The recurrence of hot conditions and new algae blooms appeared to be happening in Negril as this volume went to press (September, 1994).

5) CORAL BLEACHING

Very little new coral bleaching was observed in 1992, but residual bleaching from the 1991 bleaching event continued. The 1991 bleaching event affected almost every species in the area (Goreau 1992 a,b). Most corals slowly recovered their normal color, and only a few still showed pale patches by late 1992. These included Montastrea annularis, all Diploria species, all Agaricia species, all Porites species, the Acropora species, and all less common coral species. In sharp contrast Montastrea cavernosa and Sidereastrea siderea, showed very delayed recovery, and around 80% of the former and 90% of the latter were still bleached a year after bleaching began. By March 1993, two and a half year's afterwards, up to a quarter of these species remained partially bleached. Because their recovery has been much slower than in previous bleaching events, they may be suffering from repeated stresses, and be more severely affected by subsequent bleaching. As these are two of the most common reef-building corals in Negril, their increased mortality from bleaching would be serious.

Mass bleaching events in 1987, 1989, 1990, and 1991 followed unusually hot water conditions, with Jamaican ocean temperatures more than 1 degree Celsius above long term average values (Goreau et al., 1993; in press). In 1992 air and water temperatures in the Caribbean were very close to long term average values, for the first time in a decade (J. Clark, personal communication). The global cooling caused by the volcano is now almost over, and as remaining aerosols settle out warmer conditions could return in 1993 or 1994 (A. Strong, personal communication). If mass bleaching returns in coming years, it could potentially have severe impacts on coral reef countries like Jamaica. Global controls on climate change and greenhouse gas emissions are needed to avert this. Jamaica and other coral reef countries should pursue the implementation of meaningful climate change treaties capable of preventing change which could damage the most climatically-sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs.

6) HYDROLOGICAL CHANGES IN NEGRIL

The Negril area contains four distinct water-bearing geological formations (aquifers), namely those in peat, sand, limestone, and loam. Each aquifer is composed of a distinct material with very different permeability, chemistry, and hydrological setting. The environmental implications of changes to each are discussed below.

A. PEAT

The major peat aquifer is confined to the Negril Morass and it's margins although small peat beds may exist in wetlands in other parts of the region. Cores show that the Morass peat is up to 18 metres thick and the major peat unit is made of sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense), underlain by thin Mangrove peats up to 6 thousand years old, which lie above weathered limestone (Digerfeldt & Enell, 1984). Morass groundwater is extremely high in dissolved and particulate organic matter, giving it a dark red-brown colour, and it is acidic and anoxic (Enell, 1984). These geochemical conditions make it unlikely that proposals to use Morass water as a source for drinking water purified through reverse osmosis can succeed. Reverse osmosis technology is designed for high salt waters which are very low in organic matter. High organic matter is likely to clog membrane pores very rapidly.

Most Morass groundwaters are fresh, but tidally-affected borders of the South Negril River and the Orange River Canal have brackish groundwaters with a "rotten egg" smell from hydrogen sulphide produced by bacterial reduction of seawater sulphate. If peat soils with brackish groundwater are drained by canals they become extremely acidic from bacterial oxidation of sulphide, rendering them unfit for agriculture until all acid and salts are flushed out. The extent of brackish groundwaters in the Morass was expanded because of the excessive depth (18 feet) to which the South Negril River was dredged to provide landfill for road construction. This created a poorly circulating, seawater filled, anoxic basin, capped by freshwater and sealed off by a sandbar at the river mouth. Canals should be shallow enough that wind and water flow is able to maintain oxygen down to the bottom, which is not possible if they are too deep. Since the groundwater along the southern side of the Morass is anoxic and very high in acidity, dissolved organic matter, and hydrogen sulphide, it can cause rapid corrosion of metal and concrete pipes. When groundwater sulphide infiltrates into sewage pipes, it is oxidized by bacteria, producing sulphuric acids which further corrodes the pipes. This has been a serious problem with sewers in Key West, Florida and on the Hawaiian island of Maui, where sewage system failures have increased stress to coral reefs.

Extensive dredging of canals along the north, east, and south sides of the Morass has lowered the water table, reducing the flooding period. This allowed sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) to be replaced by reeds (Scirpus sp.) and other plants around the higher margins, and increased the likelihood of grass fires. The reduced water table has nearly eliminated the Negril Middle River, which now only rarely flows to sea during storms. Further drainage would cause ecological changes to move into the interior of the Morass, and microbial oxidation of drained peat following water table lowering would elevate nutrient levels and acidity of surface waters flowing out of the Morass. Because it lies so close to sea level, further drainage of the Morass can cause the water table to decrease only slightly before seawater infiltration occurs.

Drainage of sawgrass swamps for sugar cane cultivation in the Everglades area of Florida caused the water table to drop and the peat surface to fall as much as 20 feet, high levels of nutrients to be released into surface waters, and overgrowth of natural vegetation by nutrient-loving weeds like cattails (Typha sp). Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers and lack of water in the dry season forced water control authorities to block off canals which allowed swamp water to be pumped out to sea and to start pumping nutrient-rich agricultural and urban waste waters back into the Everglades to recharge the aquifers which provide South Florida's drinking water. Most sewage is discharged into the ground or pumped out to sea. The most common fish, birds, reptiles, and mammals have all declined strongly and offshore reefs and seagrass beds are being killed by algal blooms up to 50 miles across (Lapointe, this issue). Negril should take care to avoid Florida's mistakes in the Morass and reef.

B. SAND

The major sand aquifers are confined to the Long Bay and Bloody Bay Beach strips. The sand is made entirely of unconsolidated limestone fragments of the skeletons of coral reef organisms which have been washed ashore. These aquifers were extremely permeable to groundwater flow and surface infiltration in their original state. Along the road and built up areas it is overlain with compacted loam and marl through which water drains very poorly, causing flooding after even very light rains. Most of the low Iying sand aquifers overlie peat, except between Long Bay and Bloody Bay, and a small area in the centre of Long Bay near Standing Woods, where it overlies limestone rock. Small sand aquifers in southern Orange Bay and between Little Bay and Salmon Point are made up of brown quartz sand eroded from inland areas. These are likely to be much less permeable than the white sand beaches due to high silt and mud contents.

Before Negril was developed, high water levels in the Morass during the rainy season created a hydraulic pressure gradient which pushed Morass groundwater westward through the sand into Long Bay and Bloody Bay (Figure 3). This flow was reduced by the lowered Morass water table caused by canal drainage. After construction of water lines for intensive development, high discharge of waste water into the sand began. This has caused a steady rise in the water table under the Beach, up to 3 to 4 feet in places (S. and D. Grizzle, personal communication). This increases groundwater flow from the beach into nearshore coastal waters (Figure 4). This groundwater is elevated in nutrients from sewage discharged into the sand. 95% of all Negril shore properties do not have their sewage treated according to an NCRPS survey (Pryor, this volume). The combination of increased discharge and increased nutrient concentrations must have greatly raised nutrient release into the ocean. A detailed survey of nutrients concentration and flow in the beach aquifer is needed to identify the extent of contamination.

Seepage from the beach aquifer is the most likely source of high nutrients reported by Wade in Long Bay (this volume) and the major cause of algal overgrowth of Negril reefs (Goreau, 1992a; Lapointe, this volume). At sites of likely groundwater discharge into the coastal zone near the beach, the distribution of large mats of blue green algae on the sand and in turtle grass beds suggests nutrients are derived by seepage from underlying sand. Several species of blue-green algae (also known as cyanobacteria, and despite their name, they can be blue-green, red, black, and brown) formed slimy mats which overgrow the bottom (see pictures Editor's note: Not available for this draft.) that were very uncommon until recently. The abundance of these mats was greatest in southern Bloody Bay and northern and southern sections of Long Bay. They appeared less common near the undeveloped middle section of Long Bay near "Standing Woods". Changes in the distribution of blue-green algae mats should be periodically monitored by glass bottom boat.

Rising water tables along the beach strip are causing corrosion of building foundations. It prevents proper operation of septic tanks, which must be above the water table to maintain enough oxygen to prevent generation of noxious gases. Many of these tanks now lie below the water table, where flooded anaerobic conditions greatly reduce microbial breakdown of sewage and causes foul smells. Many beach properties have responded to complaints about vile odours by having to repeatedly pump out and dispose of their septic holding tank contents. When dumped into the Whitehall sewage treatment plant, this septic sewage poisons the normal microbial water treatment process, causing the plant to be shut down repeatedly. Release of these discharges into the Whitehall plant has been forbidden, but septic tank sewage continues to be produced, pumped out, and disposed at sites unknown but suspected into the Morass or surface waters. Construction and hookup to the new sewage system will greatly reduce pollution to the sand aquifer once the treatment plant is in operation. Nevertheless the aquifer will remain contaminated for years until the high nutrients are eventually flushed out of the groundwater. In the interim period prior to construction of the new sewage collection system, septic tanks should either be rebuilt above the water table, or pumped out more frequently and treated properly before released into the environment.

Release of nutrients from the sand aquifer to coastal waters could also be reduced through a combination of:

1 ) retrofitting with water-saving toilets and shower heads,

2) use of groundwater for irrigation instead of NWC treated drinking water,

3) planting of more trees with deep roots and high transpiration rates in place of shallow rooted grasses and ornamentals which require constant watering in the dry season,

4) application of small scale biological tertiary treatment of wastewater in the interim period until the new sewage system is built.

C. LIMESTONE

Limestone aquifers make up the greater part of the Negril area. There is no permanent surface drainage, and the water table lies hundreds of feet deep in higher hill areas. Horizontal water flow takes place through caves, with which these rocks are riddled. Caves generally track faults, which are preferential sites of water seepage and limestone dissolution, and they follow current and fossil groundwater surfaces. Caves are found at a number of levels at, above, and below the current water table. They are connected vertically by sinkholes which allow rapid flow of water downward. In most limestone areas, toilets are built directly over sinkholes, cracks, or crevices, and "soak-away pits" or septic tanks located in them. Most hotels and houses in limestone areas are thought to pump or drain raw sewage directly into sinkholes, where it is widely dispersed by underground flow alone caves.

"Tile fields" are widely used for sewage disposal in limestone areas. Tile fields are designed for use in dense impermeable soil, and are used to disperse the sewage over a wider area to permit absorption by the soil. They are not intended for use in highly porous rocks like limestone. They do little more than funnel sewage into whatever limestone cracks they intersect, and from there the sewage contaminates the ground water. Sewage entering limestone groundwater can be transported through caves and enter the marine environment up to several miles from shore. Areas in the expected direction of groundwater flow from the beach have developed severe overgrowth by the high nutrient-loving weedy algae Cladophoropsis macromeres in the last two years.

Many caves of the West End were examined from sea and land. All major caves lie along nearly vertical faults which reach the top of the coastal limestone terrace and run well inland. They appeared to be major sources of freshwater and nutrient delivery to the nearshore zone. The mouths of these caves often have populations of high nutrient indicating algae such as Bryopsis pennata, Anadyomene stellata, and Dictyosphaeria cavernosa, which are not found along shorelines away from these caves. It is likely that most, if not all caves are now significantly polluted. There are numerous reports of ear infections from bathers swimming near some of them.

The caves are a major attraction for snorkelers, swimmers, divers, and cavers, and keeping them safe for recreation requires that all sewage entering their underground flow channels be diverted instead into sewage collection and treatment facilities. As the bulk of the existing sewage generation in the West End is from residential areas which will not be hooked up to the new collection system as it is currently planned (Burrow Crocker, this volume), a second stage system which constructs lateral connecting lines up all side roads to populated hill areas will be needed. Making sewage treatment mandatory and complete is crucial. Groundwater and cave waters entering the ocean should be monitored as quickly as possible to establish a baseline to determine: a) if these waters are currently polluted, b) if sewage construction affects their quality, and c) whether the new sewage collection system is effective in intercepting virtually all excess nutrient inputs to coastal waters, as is needed to avert eutrophication.

In addition, the water quality of other limestone groundwater in the proposed Park needs to be evaluated, including the hilly recharge source areas for the aquifers below Negril Hill and the Fish River Hills. As these are isolated aquifers in fairly dry areas, they can be over pumped beyond their natural recharge capability. This would result in salt water intrusion into coastal aquifers while interior aquifers would see falling water tables and diminished yield or drying up of springs, wells, and groundwater pumps. Surrounding limestone hills are an important source of surface water in the Morass and river systems. Measurement of their nutrient levels and flow are needed to determine the proportion of nutrients delivered to the sea derived from the shore zone and from interior areas. Remote hilly areas that are unlikely to be reached by lateral sewage lines should be encouraged to use solar composting toilets or apply small scale biological tertiary sewage treatment where possible in order to minimize groundwater contamination by nutrients and pathogens (see Wilson, this volume).

D. LOAM

A loamy soil aquifer lies between the Morass and nearby hills. The aquifer must be distinguished from loamy soil materials brought into Negril on a large scale to provide soil and build up low Iying land along the beach and the edge of the Morass. It appears to be derived from eroded soils which were transported from the east by rivers before the Morass began to develop around 6,000 years ago or during higher sea level conditions around 130,000 years ago. Although this aquifer occupies only a small part of the region, much of the proposed sewage route from the Negril Round-About to Sheffield lies in this aquifer or along it's boundary with the Morass. Little information is available about the thickness of this aquifer, geochemical characteristics of its groundwater, or its hydrology, as the aquifer was not recognized in previous surveys. Given its dimensions and location, its chemical composition is likely to be strongly influenced by the much larger peat and limestone aquifers which surround it.

Excavations for the new gas station storage tank and elsewhere show the loam aquifer is composed of heavy reddish clay similar to soils in the non-limestone interior of Westmoreland and Hanover. It is dense and fairly impermeable to water infiltration once tree cover is removed, making it susceptible to erosion. This aquifer underlies some of the most densely populated parts of Negril. As it makes some of the best soils in the area it is the site of a major fraction of local produce cultivation and livestock grazing. It is therefore likely that this aquifer contains much higher than average nutrients from local animals, agriculture, and toilets. Sewage disposal appears to be exclusively of the "soak-away" or "pit latrine" type, with the exception of some 60 houses in the Whitehall housing scheme with their own sewage treatment plant.

Groundwater flow is directly downslope towards the South Negril River, so the loam aquifer could be the source of a major fraction of contamination in the river, as suggested by the increase in nutrients downstream (Enell, 1984; Wade, this volume). According to the current sewage plan (Burrow Crocker, this volume), no provision is planned for sewage service for the existing resident population on grounds that most are squatters and are due for removal. As these densely populated areas will continue to produce sewage wastes which affect the river and the bay, full provision of sewage treatment is needed in these areas on environmental grounds. This could be accomplished by providing connections along the main sewage line running through the most densely populated zone. An alternative is to use non-polluting toilets, such as composting types. These use roof solar panels to drive a small ventilation fan, and passively collected solar heat to dewater wastes and sterilize them into a beneficial dry agricultural compost (Wilson, this volume).

RECOMMENDED ACTIONS FOR NEGRIL MARINE PARK

In this section recommendations are made for the identification, assessment, and management of environmental threats to Negril reefs in the context of the proposed establishment of a Negril Marine Park. Park boundaries are proposed which are adequate to protect the most ecologically diverse reef ecosystems near Negril. The proposed actions evaluated include detailed ecological monitoring, water quality monitoring, monitoring of surface and groundwater discharges to park waters, terrestrial habitat conservation, more extensive sewage collection, tertiary sewage treatment, protection of cave habitats, potential corrosion problems, and the need for better integrated development and environmental protection planning.

1 ) PROPOSED PARK BOUNDARIES

This proposal extends the boundary limits of earlier proposals to include nearby areas whose freshwaters or coastal waters flow into the Negril area. The boundary of the Negril Marine Park is proposed to run from Salmon Point to Green Island. Land areas which should under some form of watershed protection include the entire interior watershed, with protected park areas of swamp, dry limestone hill forest, wet limestone forest, and other important habitats. Considerable variety in ecosystems results from differences in elevation and in rainfall, which is twice as high in the east than the west. While excellent reefs deserving of protection also lie in Southeast Westmoreland and Northeast Hanover, it is thought that such areas, being further away, could not be effectively managed from Negril and should be subject to locally-run protection measures. Once effective local environmental protection groups are established in these areas they could join the Negril area as separate parts of a larger Western Jamaica Marine Park.

On the south east Salmon Point (also called Southwest Point) forms a natural park boundary that includes all reefs along the south shore of Negril Hill within the proposed Park. Salmon Point lies on the boundary of the fishing territories of Homer's Cove and Little Bay, and those of Hope Wharf and Broughton. This boundary location is strongly backed by Homer's Cove and Little Bay fishermen. The northwest corner of Green Island Harbour forms a natural boundary to the fringing reefs on the north east of the proposed park. Green Island Harbour water is too muddy for reef growth, and as a port it should be under the jurisdiction of the Port Authority. However, if Green Island fishermen wish, it may be possible to include nearby reef areas or mangrove fish nursery areas.

A system of classification and zoning for use of regional marine and terrestrial areas needs to established, defining boundaries within which specific activities such as fishing, diving, snorkeling, power boat sports, etc. are permitted, and others excluded. Certain areas should be protected as research reserves and fish nursery preserves, and no activities except scientific research and monitoring permitted. Moorings should be placed at all potential diving and snorkeling sites throughout the proposed Negril Marine Park. Zoning markers should be placed to delimit all bathing, snorkeling, diving, fishing, sailing, and motorized watersport areas from each other, and from strictly protected scientific reserves and fish nurseries. A major step is being taken by the Negril Watersports Monitoring Committee, NCC, NCRPS, and the Jamaica Hotel and Tourism Association (JHTA) in placing a mooring line to delimit boat traffic lanes from swimming areas all along Long Bay Beach. This has been needed due to a number of recent fatalities, and should also be done along the West End and other areas as they become developed.

A detailed fisheries management programme should be designed and implemented which includes protection of fish nursery grounds, no-fishing zones for fish replenishment, and replacement of ecologically destructive fishing practices in the reef with development of mariculture and offshore fishery alternatives (Travis, personal communication; Aiken, 1992; Bruno, personal communication). The management plan should be drafted by the Negril Fisherman's Cooperative, but should involve consultation with the Park and all other parties using the same waters, such as local fishermen who are not yet members of the Cooperative, divers, and water sports interests. Parks and protected areas on land would be best run under a common framework as the marine park. These areas could be managed through a local NGO established for park management. NCRPS, in consultation with NGIALA, NCC, NFC, other local groups, and NRCA should play a key role in establishing and managing the park.

2) DETAILED ECOLOGICAL SURVEY

Although there is a great deal of sport diving in Negril, very little takes place outside the Bloody Bay to Lighthouse stretch. Major parts of the proposed park area have never had their reefs described (see accompanying paper). A detailed ecological survey needs to be made of the entire park region to provide a sound scientific basis for a zoning plan to delimit separate areas for fishing, diving, snorkeling, bathing, sailing, water sports, scientific reserves, boat channels, etc. Environmental conditions, major species of corals, algae, and other forms of marine life should be recorded at identified sites near boat moorings throughout the park for long term monitoring of changes in reef health. These sites should be documented by periodic video camera images with information on location, depth, and date. Analogous monitoring should be done in protected land areas. Sport dive masters using NCRPS moorings should be trained to identify major local reef stress indicator species, document changes in reef health, and take periodic video records. An illustrated guide of reef conditions and environmental indicator species should be prepared which would allow divers to identify and estimate reef stress.

Detailed terrestrial vegetation studies have been carried out in the Morass (Coke et al., 1982), but not in the remainder of the watershed. Several ecosystems which occur there are not included in national environmental habitat inventories. A detailed ecological survey should be conducted to identify critical areas of each habitat represented in the proposed park area which are in need of protected status. The goals of the park should ensure that at least a minimum fraction, perhaps 20%, of each ecosystem is protected in order to maintain biodiversity, ecological services, and tourism values.

3) SEAWATER QUALITY MONITORING

A frequent-sampling, long-term water quality monitoring program is needed in Negril waters even before the proposed Park is established. Sampling sites should be clearly located near marker buoys, and be chosen to represent the full range of environmental conditions and stresses found. Water samples should be analyzed for temperature, salinity, transparency, colour, suspended solids, chlorophyll content, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, total nitrogen, orthophosphate, total phosphorous, and dissolved oxygen content. These data should be used to assess whether rapid nutrient increases are taking place in coastal ecosystems and to identify their sources. Continuously recording weather stations should be established at sites such as Booby Cay and the Lighthouse to measure air temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind speed and direction. Weather records from inland sites are not representative for reef areas due to strong local cloudiness and rain gradients.

4) GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER MONITORING

Surface waters and groundwaters entering the Bay are major sources of turbidity and nutrients. Protecting the quality of park waters will require monitoring flow rates and chemical composition of all sources of water to the nearshore zone. Measurements of all previously listed water quality parameters should be also taken at the mouths of all rivers through tidal cycles. Groundwater springs and fresh water entering the ocean through caves should be monitored as well. Studies should be made of the chemical composition and flow rates of groundwater towards the sea in the sand and limestone aquifers. Only adequate baseline measurements can determine the location, extent, and severity of current groundwater and coastal zone contamination, establish whether sewage line excavation or other construction activities have negative impacts on environmental quality in the West End Caves, or ascertain whether sewage treatment facilities are effective at reducing contamination to safe levels.

5) TERRESTRIAL HABITAT CONSERVATION LINKS

Critical terrestrial habitats in need of protection include the remaining beach forest vegetation, especially in Long Bay and the West End, where only one or two lots remain not cleared or scheduled for clearance. Ecologically significant shore ecosystems bordering fish nurseries, scientific reserves, or areas of exceptional reef development, should be declared terrestrial protected areas. The major portion of the remaining tall coastal forest between the beaches and the Morass, the Orange River Canal Coast, Samuels Bay, and from the area of Hog Heaven Hotel to Salmon Point should be protected to shelter adjacent reefs from damage by environmentally inappropriate land development. Special attention should be paid to preventing deforestation of the watershed's critical groundwater recharge areas on top of Negril Hill and the Fish River Hills, and around natural springs such as Logwood on which the region relies for its water supplies. All caves, drainage cracks, sinkholes, and crevices which drain into them should be protected from pollution by sewage and trash.

The proposed Negril Park includes several terrestrial ecosystems which should be surveyed for conservation needs. Inland lakes and wetlands are found in areas of anonymously low drainage on Negril Hill and elsewhere. Freshwater and brackish water swamps at the southeastern edge of the proposed park have very different vegetation than the Morass. These swamps and the adjacent brown quartz sand beach are unique in the Negril area. Instead of peat, they lie on sand and clay soil brought by floods from the George's Plain and Northern Westmoreland. Additional terrestrial habitats are thought to occur in the unsurveyed central and eastern part of the watershed.

The proposed Negril Park has many excellent caves and geological formations of scientific and historical importance. The best geological sites should be protected, preferably within parks and public education centres. The range of geological history which can be seen in Negril is remarkable. The effects of global climate change and sea level rise can be seen here clearly, making it of exceptional value for public education on global environmental change. Fossil reefs of a wide variety of ages are found in excellent preservation. The fossil reef from the last time it was significantly warmer than today, the interglacial period 125,000 years ago, makes up the entire cliff shore of the West End and Negril Hill (see Figure 5). Also perfectly preserved is the ancient sea level notch which formed at that time, around 20 feet above today's sea level, providing visible warning of where sea level is headed under global warming. On the hill above it lie fossil reefs of ages ranging up to several million years in and which grew when sea level was higher still.

Booby Cay and Rutland Point are made up of a formation not known elsewhere along the Jamaican coast. The lowest unit visible is an extremely white and very fine grained chalk which appears to be a deep sea coccolithophorid limestone sediment. It is overlain by an irregular erosion surface whose lower rim is cemented by a reddish iron cement several centimetres thick. This cement has a sharp upper boundary along the erosion surface and a diffuse lower boundary, making it appear to have been derived by diffusion of large amounts of iron dissolved in an anoxic overlying layer. Above this boundary lies a totally different formation at least 30 feet thick with a brown clay matrix enveloping round and angular fragments of a wide range of sizes up to metres across, and rock types including limestone, shell fragments of reef organisms, conglomerates, shales, and other rocks. High organic contents in this layer are suggested by fine grained dark clay and what appear to be carbonized vegetation remains. Organic matter decomposition could have consumed oxygen and caused the release of dissolved iron which diffused into adjacent oxygen containing sediments and precipitated as reddish iron cement. The sharp upper boundary implies the top layer was suddenly deposited by submarine sediment flow. The formation could be the result of a massive erosional and depositional event, such as occurs after a meteorite impact, volcanic eruptions, or earthquake-triggered landslides. Preservation of materials from this layer for detailed study is needed in order to determine its age.

If it dates from the time of the meteorite impact 65 million years ago which left a 150-mile wide crater in nearby Yucatan, this site may provide important scientific information about events which caused extinction of the dinosaurs and the large clams which made the reefs in Jamaica at that time. If they are younger, they must indicate an event of similar magnitude. The formation is unusual in containing large clasts, or rolled mud balls, ranging up to many feet across. These are similar in size or larger than the clasts found in the international geological "type section" which officially defines this time interval. This is located in Cuba, and thought to have been deposited by a huge wave (Dietz, personal communication). The clasts are far more obvious in Negril because their colour and material contrasts better with the matrix. Fossil coral reef formations excavated near Rutland Point to make an artificial beach have excellent preservation of fossil corals. These are completely different species than those now found in the Caribbean and grew millions of years and when the Caribbean was connected to the Pacific Ocean.

Booby Cay should be made into a Park Ranger Station with an observation platform. A small educational nature interpretation centre should be set up featuring nearby reefs and geological formations. Exceptional areas of fossil reef terraces, ancient sea level notches, and the old sea cliffs above them should be protected as by the Park with educational displays. Suitable sites include the area south of Drumville Cove and the base of the hill near Hog Heaven Hotel. Several Negril sites are said to include Arawak remains, which should also be protected as historical and archaeological sites. As existing geological maps of the region show numerous errors it should be re-surveyed and its environmental history re-evaluated.

6) SEWAGE REQUIREMENTS: COMPLETENESS

NWC deserves strong support for moving ahead to implement sewage treatment in Negril at the earliest opportunity and by restricting further development until after it is in place. The Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society is one of the strongest proponents for prompt implementation of sewage treatment because of the urgent need to protect Negril reefs from algal overgrowth caused by excess nutrients. It must play a constructive role to ensure that the sewage scheme is implemented in a way that minimizes short term disruption while maximizing long term benefits, thereby protecting the viability of the proposed Negril Marine Park.

The major environmental concern with the current sewage plan is that hookup to the collection system is not mandatory, and will not be complete. Large numbers of people living in the hills and in poorer neighbourhoods are not included, nor the areas north and south of the sewage lines which are slated to undergo development soon. Much, perhaps most, sewage generated in the watershed will not be collected or treated and will continue to pollute groundwater and the reef. Eventually this will make the benefits from the sewage system insufficient to prevent eutrophication. The proposed system is an important step in the right direction, but it is not adequate, as now designed, to solve Negril's coastal eutrophication problem.

NCRPS, working with others concerned, should urge that hookup to the system becomes mandatory in those areas it will serve. Funding should be sought by the Government for a second stage to the existing sewage scheme which will extend branch lines to all the developing areas, provide laterals up the side roads, and provide service to low-income communities. Because Long Bay phosphorous levels in 1991 were over ten times higher than the limits below which they must stay in order to prevent algae overgrowing the reef, a sewage collection system is needed that removes almost all of the nutrients generated in the entire watershed. A more extensive sewage collection system is needed to prevent Long Bay from becoming ecologically unviable as a marine park, as is now the case in much of Montego Bay and Ocho Rios. Clear assessment of potential insufficiency of the new system is needed for funding to be obtained as quickly as possible for a more complete system that serves all of Negril's sanitation and environmental needs.

Undeveloped coastal areas along the proposed Negril Marine Park shoreline which are not served by the sewage lines should be subject to a construction moratorium until appropriate sewage infrastructure is in place. This is essential to protect the real ecological gems of the Negril Marine Park, the reefs from Bloody Bay to Samuels Bay, and the reefs from the Lighthouse to Southwest Point. NCRPS should urge that similar protection be required for all other ecologically significant Jamaican reefs not yet seriously degraded by development, especially in other parts of Westmoreland, Hanover, and St. Elizabeth. NCRPS should work closely with concerned local groups and individuals in those areas to ensure that further ecotourism development in Jamaica is sustainable with regard to the health of coral reef ecosystems.

7) SEWAGE REQUIREMENTS: CAVE PROTECTION

The current plans to run the gravity sewer system along the West End road is likely to open up all the larger caves. These are the major attraction of the West End. The original recommendations for a Marine Park made to the Negril Green Island Area Land Authority in 1960 made a special point of the importance of preserving the caves of the West End as sites of rare natural beauty, often containing unusual deep water fauna. There are two types of marine caves. Erosional caves are small, numerous, dead-end caves formed by wave erosion, and are unlikely to be greatly affected by construction. Solution caves are less common, but they are large and the major route of groundwater discharge to the ocean. All solution caves are located along vertical faults which reach the top of the cliff and extend far inland, so they will all inevitably be opened by a sewage line trench alone the road.

The mouths of all caves along faults showed presence of high nutrient-indicating algae species such as Dictyosphaeria cavernosa, Bryopsis pennata, and Anadyomene stellata, which were not seen in erosion caves nearby. It therefore appears that solution caves are sites of locally high nutrient inputs. Eutrophication has thus far been prevented by vigorous wave circulation which dilutes nutrient concentrations. However, further population increases could cause a rise in nutrient levels, eventually resulting in a situation similar to Long Bay, where wave energies are lower and nutrients can build up to higher levels (see accompanying paper for further discussion on water circulation and the sensitivity of reefs to nutrients).

Investigation from the landward side showed that many septic disposal systems are built directly over major faults, crevices, and sinkholes which lead to the underground caves. Sinkholes are generally clogged with garbage, trash, and boulders. It is certain that these are major routes for drainage of septic wastes in the entire West End as well as the hilly areas inland. Some caves are regarded polluted by local residents because of frequent swimmer ear infections. All sewage now entering the underground cave systems should be channeled to sewage treatment facilities to prevent further deterioration in the environmental and medical health of the major caves.

Most faults along the West End Road showed clear signs of past violent earthquake movements up to several metres in both horizontal and vertical directions. Uplift has produced unusual parallel interconnected caves near the Lighthouse, one at sea level and one above it. While it is likely that such severe earthquakes in Negril take place at intervals of roughly a few thousand years, these faults are sites of enhanced dissolution of limestone, making them subject to potential roof collapse. At several places active collapse of the road surface is taking place above faults and the roadbed will soon have to be raised again at these sites (D. Preble, personal communication). Close proximity of the road to the sea cliff at points where active undercutting is taking place by erosion and dissolution along faults could result in cave (plus road and sewer) collapse during excavation. Trenching for a gravity sewer system is likely to make it easier for dirt, rubble, and trash to fall into them. To preserve the caves as the major natural attraction of the West End, it would seem better if either a collection system not requiring deep excavation be used along this route, or if an alternative route more inland be followed instead.

8) TERTIARY SEWAGE TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS

The great sensitivity of coral reefs to excessive nutrients demands the most complete possible nutrient removal from sewage plant effluents. The contention that tertiary treatment is unnecessary since only a little more nutrients will be added, and this won't be enough to hurt the ecosystem (Burrow-Crocker, this volume), does not meet current environmental standards. Ecologically inappropriate criteria were used with regard to reefs, and background levels are already so high that all possible further inputs should be eliminated. The proposed oxidation ponds contain a form of biological tertiary treatment in that algae (plus invading aquatic plants) in them will act to take up nutrients and incorporate it into biomass. The effluents of such pond systems often contain large amounts of microscopic algae and bacteria, and these suspended materials can cause high turbidity downstream, making them inefficient at reducing suspended solid levels in waters receiving the discharge. Use of effluent to water golf courses, as proposed, is excellent during the dry season, but most effluent will still require nutrient removal during rainy seasons when irrigation is not needed and nutrients are most rapidly flushed down the river to Long Bay.

Most of the suspended material in the oxidation pond effluents and most remaining nutrients can be easily removed by final "polishing" of the effluent through reed beds, water hyacinths, or other aquatic plants (Devi Prasad, this volume; Wilson, this volume *Editor's note: These papers not available for this draft.). These methods should be fully field-tested for incorporation into the Negril sewage treatment process. Reed beds may be the best alternative because their deep root structure aerates the soil, making them highly efficient at nutrient removal, and because reeds are already naturally adapted to this role in the Negril Morass. Areas where hotel effluents enter the Morass are often marked by giant reed beds, up to 20 feet tall, which are removing nutrients by natural tertiary treatment. The reed zone between the road and the Morass has prevented excess nutrients from reaching and changing the ecology of nearby Morass vegetation.

It is better that nutrient removal take place under controlled and harvested conditions on the sewage plant grounds than in uncontrolled growth of weedy plants and algae along the banks of the river and in Long Bay. Biological tertiary treatment to remove nutrients and suspended solids will improve water quality in the South Negril River. The river, morass, and royal palm ecosystems are unutilized natural history resources which should be protected and developed. Canoe or kayak trips up river to visit the palm reserve would add exciting new environmental dimensions to Negril tourism.

9) CORROSION POTENTIAL BY THE MORASS

The latest modification to the proposed sewage scheme is to be welcomed because the smaller pipe to be used (Burrow Crocker appendix, this volume) is far more consistent with acceptable foreseeable population development. The switch to ductile iron pipe over most of the distance reduces likelihood of cracking and infiltration which the larger concrete pipe originally specified might have been subject to.

Around two thirds of the sewage lines, the beach and the Roundabout-Sheffield legs, will be laid at or below the water table, and so will be vulnerable to corrosion-caused infiltration. While such a system can be constructed to be made leak-proof initially, the unavoidable fact remains that most of this distance lies through morass-derived groundwaters. These groundwaters are largely anoxic, and high in sulfur, organic matter, and acidity, geochemical conditions which make iron extremely soluble. This portends potential future corrosion problems which could lead to flooding of sewage pipes, inefficient pumping and treatment of groundwater, or to expensive excavation and repair.

10) INTEGRAL SUSTAINABLE PLANNING IN NEGRIL

The new sewage system will inevitably result in greatly increased traffic along the West End Road. Many sites have already been cleared in anticipation of lifting of the construction ban. The road is clearly inadequate for the present traffic. Although it is the only pedestrian route, it is dangerous because it lacks sidewalks or storm drainage. It is fronted by walls or cliffs along several stretches where pedestrians risk their lives. The attractiveness of the area would be greatly enhanced if sidewalk, widening, drainage, and sewage infrastructure problems could be simultaneously dealt with, instead of in the present uncoordinated fashion. An opportunity for sound, sustainable, attractive, safe, and integrated infrastructure development may be lost. Dealing later with these inter-related problems separately will greatly increase the cost of steps that will surely have to be taken anyway, and possibly the cost in pedestrian lives in the interim. Unless adequate drainage is provided, areas which currently flood during every rain will cause massive infiltration into manhole covers, unless these are raised so high as to endanger bicycles, motorcycles, and low-slung automobiles.

Many of these points are not part of NWC's mandate to deliver water and remove sewage, but of the Negril Green Island Area Planning Authority, other Government and Parish Agencies, and of the community. Negril has tolerated unstructured development that risks overwhelming the beauty of the natural habitat. Environmental preservation must become an officially mandated planning objective. NCRPS and local citizen's groups should support better local planning, and work constructively with responsible Government agencies to ensure that plans enacted are those best suited to the local environment.

This could be accomplished if integral regional planning were placed under a revitalized NGIALA, with full participation of all community sectors. This statutory body was originally founded to ensure sound and orderly development in Negril. Re-establishing the originally intended long-term planning role is sorely needed to prevent uncontrolled overdevelopment from destroying more of Negril’ S beauty and future economic viability. The community as a whole needs to decide if this is the legacy they wish to leave their children's children.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was only possible through the kind help of many people, whether through field assistance, discussions, or provision of food and shelter. They include Katy Thacker, Karen McCarthy, Peter Graham, Craig Travis, Daniel and Sylvie Grizzle, Cyril Connell, Stanley Gottlieb, Gregg Keesling, David Preble, William Hogg, Barbara Olsen, Barry Wade, Cy MacFarlane, Peter Goreau, Dalton Sutton, Lowan Lawrence, and many other members of the Negril community. Dr. Peter Goreau took the photographs and helped prepare the maps.

FIGURE CAPTIONS

Figure 1. Increase in nitrogen content of two common species of algae, Sargassum polyceratium and Turbinaria tricostata, from Negril Lighthouse to the South Negril River. One species shows an increase in nitrogen near the river.

Figure 2. Increase in phosphorous content of two species of algae, Sargassum polyceratium and Turbinaria tricostata, from Negril Lighthouse to the South Negril River. Both species show strong increases in phosphorous near the river.

Figure 3. West to East hydrological cross section of the Negril Morass showing major aquifers and groundwater flow patterns.

Figure 4. West to East hydrological cross section of the Long Bay Beach aquifer showing hydrological changes since development.

Figure 5. Representative cross section showing geological formations in the West End, including modern and fossil coral reefs and ancient sea levels.

MAP CAPTIONS

Map 1. The Negril area showing locations where algae were collected in 1991 for measurement of their carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous contents. Jamaica's Coral Reefs: Final Report of the Negril Reef Mooring Buoy Workshop and Installation Project, Key West, Florida.

Arthur, R., this volume.

Burrow Crocker consultants (S. Roberts & C. Jellier), this volume.

Coffin, M., 1988, Underwater Park Plan for Negril, Jamaica, Master's Thesis, Department of Landscape Architecture, Purdue University.

Coke, L., Bertrand, R., & Batchelor, S., 1982, Vegetation of the Negril Morass and Lower Black River Morass, Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, Kingston.

Devi Prasad P. V., this volume

Digerfeldt, G., & Enell, M., 1984, Paleoecological studies of the past development of the Negril and Black River Morasses, Jamaica, Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, Kingston.

Enell, M., 1984, Water Chemistry of the Negril and Black River Morasses, Jamaica, Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, Kingston.

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